El reto de mejorar el pronóstico de los niños y adolescentes con cáncer: modelo de investigación traslacional del cáncer pediátrico del Hospital Universitario Vall d´Hebron / The challenge of improving the prognosis of children and adolescents with cancer: translation research model of teh University Hosptial Vall d´Hebron

La neoplasias malignas en niños y adolescentes son enfermedades raras que muestran un pronóstico y comportamiento biológico muy diverso. Aunque el pronóstico del cáncer en la edad pediátrica ha mejroado considerablemente en las últimas décadas, incluso con los tratamiento actuales, un número considerable de estos pacientes sigue padeciendo recaídas y el cáncer es una de las causas más frecuentes de muerte en este grupo de edad. En consecuencia, los pediatras oncólogos necesitamos nuevos enfoques para mejorar la eficacia de las terapias contra el cáncer. En este artículo describimos las estrategias seguidas en nuestro programa de investigación (AU)

Malignancies in childrena nd adolescent are rare diseases with diverse prognosis and biological behaviour. The prognosis of childhood cancer has improved considerably in recent decades and suvival is approximately 70% in developed countries. However, even with current treatments, a significant number of these patients stills suffer relapse and cancer in the second most common cause of death among children and adolescents. Inour research progam, molecular diagnostic, detectionof minimal disseminated disease and identification of new therapeutic strategies are the pillars that can improve the results of current treatments for childhood cancer. In this report we describe the research strategies of our program (AU)

Actualización del tratamiento con L-asparraginasa en Pediatría / Update on L-asparaginase treatment in paediatrics

La L-asparraginasa (L-ASP) es una de las piedras angulares del tratamiento de la leucemia linfoblástica aguda y del linfoma no Hodgkin. Es una enzima de origen bacteriano con capacidad de transformar la L-Asparragina en ácido aspártico; la depleción extracelular de este aminoácido inhibe la síntesis proteica en los linfoblastos induciendo su apoptosis. Numerosos estudios han demostrado que los tratamientos con L-ASP mejoran la supervivencia de estos pacientes, pero existen diferencias en las características de las 3 formulaciones disponibles en la actualidad. Este artículo revisa la dosificación, actividad y efectos secundarios de las 2 L-ASP derivadas de Escherichia coli (la nativa y la pegilada) y de la única derivada de Erwinia chrysanthemi (Erwinia ASP). A pesar de su indiscutible indicación en los últimos 50 años, siguen existiendo numerosos puntos de controversia, y su uso todavía sigue marcado por los efectos secundarios derivados de la inhibición de la síntesis proteica. La vida media corta de las formas nativas y la vía de administración intramuscular, la más utilizada hasta el momento, afecta la calidad de vida de estos pacientes por la frecuencia con la que han de acudir al centro hospitalario y las múltiples punciones que conlleva. Por ello, los estudios más recientes pretenden valorar otras alternativas como la formulación de vida media más larga (L-ASP pegilada) y la vía intravenosa, con resultados alentadores. Aun así, son necesarios más estudios para establecer cuál es la formulación y la vía de administración indicada en primera línea, la dosificación óptima y el manejo de los efectos adversos (AU)

L-asparaginase (L-ASP) is one of the cornerstones of the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is an enzyme of bacterial origin capable of transforming L-asparagine to aspartic acid. The extracellular depletion of L-asparagine inhibits protein synthesis in lymphoblasts, inducing their apoptosis. Numerous studies have demonstrated that treatment with L-ASP improves survival of patients, but there are clear differences in the characteristics of the three currently available formulations. This article reviews the dosage, activity and side effects of the two L-ASP derived from Escherichia coli (native and pegylated), and the one derived from Erwinia chrysanthemi (Erwinia ASP). Despite its indisputable indication over the past50 years, there are still many points of contention, and its use is still marked by the side effects of the inhibition of protein synthesis. The short half-life of native forms, and the most frequently used parenteral administration by intramuscular injections, affects the quality of life of the patients. Therefore, recent studies claim to evaluate alternatives, such as the formulation of longer half-life pegylated L-ASP, and the use of intravenous formulations. There are encouraging results to date with both preparations. Still, further studies are needed to establish which should be the formulation and frontline indicated route of administration, optimal dosing, and management of adverse effects (AU)

[Update on L-asparaginase treatment in paediatrics]. / Actualización del tratamiento con L-asparraginasa en Pediatría.

L-asparaginase (L-ASP) is one of the cornerstones of the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is an enzyme of bacterial origin capable of transforming L-asparagine to aspartic acid. The extracellular depletion of L-asparagine inhibits protein synthesis in lymphoblasts, inducing their apoptosis. Numerous studies have demonstrated that treatment with L-ASP improves survival of patients, but there are clear differences in the characteristics of the three currently available formulations. This article reviews the dosage, activity and side effects of the two L-ASP derived from Escherichia coli (native and pegylated), and the one derived from Erwinia chrysanthemi (Erwinia ASP). Despite its indisputable indication over the past50 years, there are still many points of contention, and its use is still marked by the side effects of the inhibition of protein synthesis. The short half-life of native forms, and the most frequently used parenteral administration by intramuscular injections, affects the quality of life of the patients. Therefore, recent studies claim to evaluate alternatives, such as the formulation of longer half-life pegylated L-ASP, and the use of intravenous formulations. There are encouraging results to date with both preparations. Still, further studies are needed to establish which should be the formulation and frontline indicated route of administration, optimal dosing, and management of adverse effects.

Tumores mesenquimales: sarcomas de partes blandas / Mesenchymal tumors: soft tissue tumors

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Childhood cancer incidence and survival in Spain.

BACKGROUND: This article affords an overview of the patterns and time trends of childhood cancer incidence (1983-2002) and survival (1991-2002) in Spain. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A population-based study was conducted, including 5936 cases for incidence and 3257 for survival analyses. Differences in incidence were tested with the standardised incidence ratio. Trends were analysed for all tumours, and for all malignant, haematological, central nervous system (CNS) (all and only malignant) and other solid tumours. Incidence trends were analysed using Poisson and Bayesian joinpoint models. Observed, relative and age-adjusted survival rates were calculated, and trends were tested using the log-rank test. RESULTS: The incidence pattern in Spain was similar to that in Europe. Rates, both overall and for leukaemias, lymphomas, CNS, soft tissue and, remarkably, for sympathetic nervous system and bone tumours, were high. Upward incidence trends were present for all tumour groups. All groups, except solid tumours (excluding CNS), displayed a change-point centred around 1990-95, after which the trend stopped rising. Five-year survival increased significantly across the period for all groups, except for CNS tumours. Recent survival results were in line with Italy, the UK and the European average. CONCLUSIONS: To confirm these results, ongoing surveillance of incidence and survival trends, and studies targeting specific tumours are called for.

Síndrome hemofagocítico: expresión de diversas entidades nosológicas / Haemophagocytic syndrome: A common pathogenic mechanism of various aetiologies

Introducción: El síndrome hemofagocítico (SH) se caracteriza por una activación y proliferación incontrolada de histiocitos y linfocitos T, que produce un estado de hipercitocinemia. Hay 2 formas: primaria y secundaria. Objetivo: Análisis de los pacientes diagnosticados de SH según los criterios diagnósticos de los protocolos HLH (hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis ‘linfohistiocitosis hemofagocítica’)-94 y HLH-2004. Pacientes y métodos: Se revisó de forma retrospectiva la historia clínica de los pacientes diagnosticados de SH, se analizaron los criterios diagnósticos, la forma de presentación, la etiología, el tratamiento administrado y el curso evolutivo. Resultados: Se diagnosticó a 22 pacientes: 6 con formas familiares, 11 con formas asociadas a infección, 3 con formas asociadas a neoplasia y 2 con síndromes de activación macrofágica (estos pacientes con artritis idiopática juvenil y enfermedad de Crohn [EC]). En el 83,3% de los casos de linfohistiocitosis hemofagocítica familiar (LHF) la edad al diagnóstico fue inferior al año de vida. En un paciente adolescente se diagnosticó una forma primaria de la enfermedad (mutación del gen MUNC13-4). Las manifestaciones clínicas fueron fiebre (100%), hepatoesplenomegalia (85%), adenopatías (31%), palidez (21%), exantema (14%) y alteraciones neurológicas (14%); los hallazgos de laboratorio fueron citopenia (100%), hipertrigliceridemia (93%), hiperferritinemia (86%), elevación de las enzimas hepáticas (78%) e hipofibrinogenemia (40%). Se encontró una reducción de actividad de los linfocitos citolíticos naturales en el 100% de los casos. Se observó hemofagocitosis en la médula ósea en 20 pacientes. En 2 pacientes se realizó una biopsia hepática y ganglionar que demostró hemofagocitosis. Evolución: de los 22 pacientes diagnosticados de SH, 10 pacientes recibieron tratamiento según los protocolos HLH-94 y HLH-2004: 6 con LHF, 3 con formas secundarias al virus de Epstein-Barr y uno a la EC. De éstos, 6 pacientes recibieron un trasplante de progenitores hematopoyéticos (TPH), con evolución favorable en 2 de los casos con LHF. Los otros 12 pacientes con formas secundarias recibieron tratamiento etiológico, con buena evolución en el 83,3%. Conclusiones: Las formas familiares de SH se diagnostican generalmente antes de los 2 años de edad, aunque se presentan formas primarias en edades más avanzadas. El tratamiento quimioterapéutico e inmunosupresor y el TPH constituyen la base del tratamiento de las formas familiares. Las formas secundarias deben recibir tratamiento etiológico y, si la evolución no es favorable, tratamiento quimioterapéutico e inmunosupresor (AU)

Introduction: Haemophagocytic syndrome (HPS) is a rare syndrome characterised by the uncontrolled activation and proliferation of histiocytes and T cells, leading to a cytokines overproduction. There are two forms of HPS: primary and secondary. Objective: To analyse patients diagnosed with HPS at the Oncohaematology Department, using HLH-94 and 2004 protocol diagnostic criteria. Materials and methods: Retrospective study of clinical files of patients diagnosed with HPS, analysing the following features: diagnostic criteria, variability in clinical presentation, aetiology, treatment and outcome. Results: Twenty-two patients were diagnosed with HPS: 6 familial haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL), 11 HPS with evidence of infection, 3 HPS associated with malignant disease and 2 macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) in patients with Crohn's disease and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis. The onset of FHL was within 1 year of age in 83.3%, except for 1 patient who was adolescent (MUNC13-4 mutations). Symptoms: All patients (100%) had fever at diagnosis, 18 (85%) hepatosplenomegaly, 7 (31%) lymphadenopathy, 5 (21%) pallor, 3 (14%) rash and 3 (14%) neurological symptoms. Laboratory analysis: all patients (100%) had cytopenias at diagnosis, 20 (90.9%) hypertriglyceridaemia, 19 (86%) hyperferritinaemia, 17 (77%) elevated serum liver enzymes, and 9 (40%) hypofibrinogenaemia. Decreased or absent NK-cell activity was detected in all patients (100%). Haemophagocytosis was found more frequently in bone marrow; however, liver or lymph node biopsies were required in two patients to demonstrate this. Outcome: Of the ten patients (6 FHL, 3 Epstein-Barr virus-associated HPS and 1 MAS) treated with HLH-94 and 2004 protocols, six received a stem-cell transplant; of these, 2 with FHL had a favourable outcome. The remaining 12 patients received aetiological/supportive therapy, with complete remission in 83.3%. Conclusions: The diagnosis of FHL should be made before the age of 2 years. Advances in genetic studies allow the detection of early and late forms of FHL. Immunochemotherapy and stem-cell transplantation constitute the treatment of FHL and aetiological/supportive therapy of acquired haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, except in severe forms (AU)

[Haemophagocytic syndrome: A common pathogenic mechanism of various aetiologies]. / Síndrome hemofagocítico: expresión de diversas entidades nosológicas.

INTRODUCTION: Haemophagocytic syndrome (HPS) is a rare syndrome characterised by the uncontrolled activation and proliferation of histiocytes and T cells, leading to a cytokines overproduction. There are two forms of HPS: primary and secondary. OBJECTIVE: To analyse patients diagnosed with HPS at the Oncohaematology Department, using HLH-94 and 2004 protocol diagnostic criteria. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retrospective study of clinical files of patients diagnosed with HPS, analysing the following features: diagnostic criteria, variability in clinical presentation, aetiology, treatment and outcome. RESULTS: Twenty-two patients were diagnosed with HPS: 6 familial haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL), 11 HPS with evidence of infection, 3 HPS associated with malignant disease and 2 macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) in patients with Crohn's disease and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis. The onset of FHL was within 1 year of age in 83.3%, except for 1 patient who was adolescent (MUNC13-4 mutations). SYMPTOMS: All patients (100%) had fever at diagnosis, 18 (85%) hepatosplenomegaly, 7 (31%) lymphadenopathy, 5 (21%) pallor, 3 (14%) rash and 3 (14%) neurological symptoms. LABORATORY ANALYSIS: all patients (100%) had cytopenias at diagnosis, 20 (90.9%) hypertriglyceridaemia, 19 (86%) hyperferritinaemia, 17 (77%) elevated serum liver enzymes, and 9 (40%) hypofibrinogenaemia. Decreased or absent NK-cell activity was detected in all patients (100%). Haemophagocytosis was found more frequently in bone marrow; however, liver or lymph node biopsies were required in two patients to demonstrate this. OUTCOME: Of the ten patients (6 FHL, 3 Epstein-Barr virus-associated HPS and 1 MAS) treated with HLH-94 and 2004 protocols, six received a stem-cell transplant; of these, 2 with FHL had a favourable outcome. The remaining 12 patients received aetiological/supportive therapy, with complete remission in 83.3%. CONCLUSIONS: The diagnosis of FHL should be made before the age of 2 years. Advances in genetic studies allow the detection of early and late forms of FHL. Immunochemotherapy and stem-cell transplantation constitute the treatment of FHL and aetiological/supportive therapy of acquired haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, except in severe forms.

Molecular biology of rhabdomyosarcoma.

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is one of the most common extracranial solid tumours in children. Embryonal and alveolar subtypes of RMS present completely different genetic abnormalities. Embryonal RMS (eRMS) is characterised by loss of heterozygosity on the short arm of chromosome 11 (11p15.5), suggesting inactivation of a tumour-suppressor gene. In contrast, the majority (80-85%) of the alveolar RMS (aRMS) have the reciprocal chromosomal translocations 't(2;13)(q35;q14) or t(1;13)(p36;q14). t(2;13) appears in approximately 70% of patients with the alveolar subtype. The molecular counterpart of this translocation consists of the generation of a chimeric fusion gene involving the /PAX3/ gene located in chromosome 2 and a member of the fork-head family, /FOXO1/ (formerly /FKHR/), located in chromosome 13. A less frequent variant translocation t(1;13) involves another PAX family gene, /PAX7/, located in chromosome 1 and /FOXO1/ and is present in 10-15% of cases of the alveolar subtype in RMS. Recently, many studies focused on cancer have demonstrated the great potential of the genomic approach based on tumour expression profiles. These technologies permit the identification of new regulatory pathways. Molecular detection of minimal disease by a sensitive method could contribute to better treatment stratification in these patients. In RMS, the advances in the knowledge of the biological characteristics of the tumour are slowly translated into the clinical management of children with this tumour.

Molecular biology of rhabdomyosarcoma

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is one of the most common extracranial solid tumours in children. Embryonal and alveolar subtypes of RMS present completely different genetic abnormalities. Embryonal RMS (eRMS) is characterised by loss of heterozygosity on the short arm of chromosome 11 (11p15.5), suggesting inactivation of a tumour-suppressor gene. In contrast, the majority (80-85%) of the alveolar RMS (aRMS) have the reciprocal chromosomal translocations 't(2;13)(q35;q14) or t(1;13)(p36;q14). t(2;13) appears in approximately 70% of patients with the alveolar subtype. The molecular counterpart of this translocation consists of the generation of a chimeric fusion gene involving the /PAX3/ gene located in chromosome 2 and a member of the fork-head family, /FOXO1/ (formerly /FKHR/), located in chromosome 13. A less frequent variant translocation t(1;13) involves another PAX family gene, /PAX7/, located in chromosome 1 and /FOXO1/ and is present in 10-15% of cases of the alveolar subtype in RMS. Recently, many studies focused on cancer have demonstrated the great potential of the genomic approach based on tumour expression profiles. These technologies permit the identification of new regulatory pathways. Molecular detection of minimal disease by a sensitive method could contribute to better treatment stratification in these patients. In RMS, the advances in the knowledge of the biological characteristics of the tumour are slowly translated into the clinical management of children with this tumour (AU)

Lactante de 9 meses con aumento unilateral del tamaño testicular / Nine-month-old infant with unilateral increase in testicular size

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[Minimal residual disease in acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a new concept of complete remission]. / Leucemia mínima residual: nuevo concepto de remisión completa.

INTRODUCTION: Early response to induction treatment is one of the most important prognostic factors in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Cytological remission is currently achieved in 95-98 % of these patients, although a significant proportion will later relapse. More sensitive techniques are required to measure residual leukemia and establish a new definition of complete remission. OBJECTIVE: To identify minimal residual disease (MRD) by immunological techniques and define its prognostic impact in children with ALL. METHODS: MRD was studied by flow cytometry in 53 children diagnosed in our department between June 1999 and April 2003 and treated using the Pethema protocols. All the children achieved complete cytological remission (< 5 %) with the induction treatment and had at least one useful phenotype for follow-up: 11 % were T phenotype, one was biphenotypic and the remainder were B cell leukemias. Bone marrow samples were analyzed post-induction, post-consolidation, after 6 and 11 months of maintenance treatment, at the end of treatment, and 3 months later. The positivity threshold was set at 0.01 % and the sensitivity of the technique was 1 x 10(-4)-1 x 10(-5). RESULTS: A total of 199 samples were analyzed. Thirty-seven percent of the post-induction and 20 % of the post-consolidation samples analyzed were MRD-positive. Elimination was slower in patients with a T phenotype and in high-risk patients according to the traditional classification. After a median follow-up of 26 months, event free survival (EFS) in the group as a whole was 92 %. The EFS rate in the patients who were MRD-positive post-induction was 79 %. None of the patients who were MRD-negative post-induction has developed recurrence. CONCLUSION: Study of MRD is essential and should be included in all current treatment protocols for children with ALL. Its usefulness derives from the prognostic impact of the response to induction treatment. Continued sequential monitoring may predict recurrence before the onset of clinical or hematologic manifestations.

Leucemia mínima residual: nuevo concepto de remisión completa / Minimal residual disease in acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a new concept of complete remission

Introducción: La respuesta precoz al tratamiento de inducción es uno de los factores pronósticos más importantes en niños afectados de leucemia linfoblástica aguda (LLA). Actualmente se consigue la remisión citológica en el 95-98 % de estos pacientes; sin embargo, un porcentaje importante recaerá posteriormente. Es preciso utilizar técnicas más sensibles para medir la leucemia residual y establecer un nuevo concepto de remisión completa. Objetivo: Identificar por técnicas inmunológicas la enfermedad mínima residual (EMR) y conocer su impacto pronóstico en niños afectados de LLA. Métodos: Estudiamos la EMR por citometría de flujo en 53 niños diagnosticados en nuestro servicio desde junio de 1999 hasta abril de 2003 y tratados según protocolos del grupo Pethema. Todos habían conseguido la remisión citológica (< 5 %) con el tratamiento de inducción y tenían al menos un fenotipo útil para seguimiento. El 11 % eran de fenotipo T, 1 bifenotípica y el resto eran leucemias tipo B. Se analizaron muestras de médula ósea postinducción, posconsolidación, a 6 y 11 meses de mantenimiento, al final del tratamiento y 3 meses después. Se colocó el umbral de positividad en 0,01 %, siendo la sensibilidad de la técnica de 1 x 10­4-1 x 10­5. Resultados: Se analizaron un total de 199 muestras. El 37 % de las muestras analizadas postinducción y el 20 % posconsolidación eran EMR1. La eliminación fue más lenta en los pacientes de fenotipo T y en los de alto riesgo según la clasificación tradicional. Con una mediana de seguimiento de 26 meses, la supervivencia libre de enfermedad (SLE) del grupo completo fue del 92 %. Los pacientes con una EMR1 postinducción tuvieron una tasa de SLE del 79 %. Ningún paciente con EMR-postinducción ha presentado recidiva. Conclusión: El estudio de la EMR es imprescindible y debe estar incluida en todos los protocolos de tratamiento actuales para niños con LLA. Su utilidad radica en el impacto pronóstico de la respuesta al tratamiento de inducción. La monitorización secuencial posterior puede predecir recaídas antes de que aparezcan manifestaciones clínicas o hematológicas

Introduction: Early response to induction treatment is one of the most important prognostic factors in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Cytological remission is currently achieved in 95-98 % of these patients, although a significant proportion will later relapse. More sensitive techniques are required to measure residual leukemia and establish a new definition of complete remission. Objective: To identify minimal residual disease (MRD) by immunological techniques and define its prognostic impact in children with ALL. Methods: MRD was studied by flow cytometry in 53 children diagnosed in our department between June 1999 and April 2003 and treated using the Pethema protocols. All the children achieved complete cytological remission (< 5 %) with the induction treatment and had at least one useful phenotype for follow-up: 11 % were T phenotype, one was biphenotypic and the remainder were B cell leukemias. Bone marrow samples were analyzed post-induction, post-consolidation, after 6 and 11 months of maintenance treatment, at the end of treatment, and 3 months later. The positivity threshold was set at 0.01 % and the sensitivity of the technique was 1 x 10­4-1 x 10­5. Results: A total of 199 samples were analyzed. Thirty-seven percent of the post-induction and 20 % of the post-consolidation samples analyzed were MRD-positive. Elimination was slower in patients with a T phenotype and in high-risk patients according to the traditional classification. After a median follow-up of 26 months, event free survival (EFS) in the group as a whole was 92 %. The EFS rate in the patients who were MRD-positive post-induction was 79 %. None of the patients who were MRD-negative post-induction has developed recurrence. Conclusion: Study of MRD is essential and should be included in all current treatment protocols for children with ALL. Its usefulness derives from the prognostic impact of the response to induction treatment. Continued sequential monitoring may predict recurrence before the onset of clinical or hematologic manifestations